Richard Francis Burton: The Victorian Adventurer And Spy Who Brought The Kama Sutra To The West
Born in 1821, Sir Richard Francis Burton was a renowned British explorer, writer, orientalist scholar, and soldier. He gained fame for his extensive travels and explorations across Asia, Africa, and the Americas, showcasing an exceptional command of languages and deep understanding of diverse cultures. It is said that Burton was proficient in 29 languages.
Among Burton's most notable accomplishments are his documented pilgrimage to Mecca in disguise, a daring feat during a time when access for non-Muslims was forbidden under threat of death. He is also celebrated for his unabridged translation of One Thousand and One Nights, commonly known as The Arabian Nights, as well as his English rendition of the Kama Sutra and The Perfumed Garden, often referred to as the "Arab Kama Sutra." Additionally, Burton, alongside John Hanning Speke, embarked on an expedition to become the first Europeans to explore the Great Lakes of Africa in pursuit of the Nile's source.
Despite facing criticism and career setbacks due to his outspoken opposition to British colonial policies, Burton's scholarly contributions were vast and varied. Despite not completing his university studies, he emerged as a prolific author, producing numerous books and scholarly articles covering an array of topics such as human behaviour, travel, falconry, fencing, sexual practices, and ethnography.
Born in Torquay, Burton hailed from a family that led a nomadic lifestyle during his formative years, traversing England, France, and Italy. Throughout these travels, various tutors accompanied them to educate young Burton. Displaying a remarkable aptitude for languages, he swiftly mastered French, Italian, Neapolitan, and Latin, along with several dialects. It's said that during his youth, Burton engaged in a romance with a Roma girl, from whom he gleaned the basics of the Romani language. These early wanderings may have instilled in Burton a sense of being an outsider, a sentiment that lingered with him throughout his life.
At the age of 19, Burton entered Trinity College, Oxford, in November 1840. Prior to securing accommodation at the college, he briefly resided in the home of William Alexander Greenhill, a physician at the Radcliffe Infirmary, where he crossed paths with John Henry Newman, whose churchwarden happened to be Greenhill. Despite his intellectual prowess, Burton found himself at odds with both his instructors and fellow students. In his first term, he reportedly challenged a peer to a duel following a jest about Burton's distinctive moustache.
Undeterred by the adversity, Burton continued to indulge his passion for languages, delving into the study of Arabic. He also devoted time to mastering the arts of falconry and fencing. However, his rebellious streak became apparent when he attended a steeplechase in April 1842, openly flouting college regulations. When confronted by college authorities, Burton brazenly argued for students' rights to attend such events. Hoping for a lenient punishment such as suspension, Burton instead faced permanent expulsion from Trinity College.
In response to his expulsion, Burton enlisted in the army of the East India Company at the recommendation of former classmates already serving. He harboured aspirations of participating in the first Afghan war, but by the time he reached India, the conflict had concluded.
During his time in India, Burton acquired fluency in a multitude of languages including Hindustani, Gujarati, Punjabi, Sindhi, Saraiki, and Marathi, in addition to Persian and Arabic. His immersion in Hindu culture reached such depths that his Hindu tutor granted him permission to wear the janeo, a symbol of Brahmanical status. His tutor, Him Chand, a Nagar Brahmin, may have been viewed as unconventional within his own religious community due to his association with Burton.
Burton's fascination with Indian cultures and religions was well-documented, distinguishing him from his fellow soldiers. Among his idiosyncrasies, he maintained a notable interest in the diverse cultures and religious practices of India. In a unique pursuit, he endeavoured to comprehend the language of monkeys, keeping a sizable collection of tame primates and purportedly learning around sixty "words" from them. Due to his formidable combat skills and propensity for engaging in single combat, he earned the moniker "Ruffian Dick" among his comrades.
Burton's extensive seven-year stay in India provided him with an intimate understanding of Muslim customs and behaviours, setting the stage for his daring attempt at the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina in 1853. This journey, meticulously planned while disguised among the Muslims of Sindh, catapulted Burton to fame. In preparation, he undertook thorough studies and practices, even undergoing the Muslim rite of circumcision to reduce the risk of exposure. Despite not being the first non-Muslim European to embark on the Hajj, Burton's pilgrimage stood out as the most renowned and meticulously documented of its time.
Employing various disguises, including that of a Pashtun, Burton meticulously navigated the complexities of Islamic traditions and Eastern etiquette. His perilous trek to Mecca was fraught with danger, as his caravan faced attacks from bandits, a common hazard during that era. Burton aptly summarized the peril he faced, acknowledging that although neither the Koran nor the Sultan commanded the death of non-Muslims within the sanctuary limits, detection by the local populace could prove fatal.
Upon completion of the pilgrimage, Burton earned the esteemed title of Hajji and the privilege of donning the revered green head wrap. Subsequently, in May 1854, he journeyed to Aden in preparation for his Somaliland Expedition, sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society. This expedition, spanning from October 29, 1854, to February 9, 1855, centered around the port of Zeila, where Burton, disguised as an Arab merchant named Hajji Mirza Abdullah, awaited the opportune moment to proceed to Harar.
Despite facing challenges such as a shortage of supplies, Burton successfully reached Harar on January 3, 1855, where he was warmly received by the Amir. However, his stay in the city, ostensibly as a guest of the Amir, was more akin to captivity. Nevertheless, Burton's resourcefulness enabled his safe return to Berbera by January 31, 1855, a journey marked by peril and survival against the harsh elements of the desert.
Following his pilgrimage, Burton embarked on another ambitious expedition alongside Lieutenant Speke, Lieutenant G. E. Herne, and Lieutenant William Stroyan, accompanied by a team of African bearers and guides. The group aimed to uncover the source of the Nile River. Arriving at Berbera aboard the schooner HCS Mahi on April 7, 1855, they set up camp near the town.
However, their expedition faced a grim turn when they were attacked by Somali warriors from the Isaaq clan while encamped near Berbera. The officers estimated the assailants to number around 200. In the ensuing clash, Stroyan tragically lost his life, and Speke was captured and wounded in multiple places before eventually escaping. Burton himself sustained a severe injury, impaled by a javelin that pierced one cheek and exited the other, leaving a distinctive scar visible in portraits and photographs. Despite his grievous wound, Burton managed to flee, with the javelin still lodged in his head.
This encounter left Burton with a lasting impression of the Somali people, whom he described as "fierce and turbulent." Nevertheless, the expedition's failure incurred harsh scrutiny from authorities, prompting a two-year investigation into Burton's role in the disaster. Though largely absolved of blame, the incident cast a shadow over Burton's career, impacting his prospects moving forward.
The Source of the Nile
In 1856, the Royal Geographical Society sponsored another expedition for Burton and Speke, aiming to explore the previously uncharted Lake regions of Central Africa. Their journey would take them from Zanzibar to Ujiji, following a caravan route established in 1825 by an Arab trader dealing in slaves and ivory. Setting off on June 5, 1857, from Zanzibar, where they had been hosted by Atkins Hamerton, the British consul, their caravan comprised Baluchi mercenaries under the leadership of Ramji, 36 porters, and eventually a total of 132 individuals, all guided by Said bin Salim.
From the outset, Burton and Speke encountered numerous challenges, including diseases like malaria, fevers, and other ailments, often requiring them to be carried in hammocks. Their pack animals perished, and some of the natives deserted, taking essential supplies with them. Nevertheless, on November 7, 1857, they reached Kazeh, setting out for Ujiji on December 14. While Speke was keen to head north, confident they would discover the source of the Nile at what he later named Victoria Nyanza, Burton insisted on heading west.
The expedition reached Lake Tanganyika on February 13, 1858, leaving Burton in awe of the magnificent sight, although Speke, temporarily blinded, was unable to fully appreciate it. Despite losing much of their surveying equipment and facing various setbacks, they pressed on. Burton fell ill again on the return journey, while Speke continued exploring independently, eventually locating Lake Victoria, or Victoria Nyanza, on August 3. Despite lacking supplies and proper instruments for thorough surveying, Speke was convinced it was the Nile's source.
Burton chronicled their journey in "Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa" (1860), while Speke documented his perspective in "The Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile" (1863). Returning to Zanzibar on March 4, 1859, they departed for Aden on March 22. Speke immediately sailed for London aboard HMS Furious, where he delivered lectures and secured funding for a second expedition from the Society. Burton arrived in London on May 21, only to find Speke already in the limelight, a situation that stirred rivalry between them. Speke also published "What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile" (1863), while Burton's "Zanzibar; City, Island, and Coast" was eventually published in 1872.
Burton On Sex
Burton's writings are notably candid regarding his fascination with sex and sexuality. Throughout his travel accounts, he delves into the intimate lives of the inhabitants of the regions he traversed, often including detailed observations about sexual practices. His curiosity extended to measuring the penile lengths of male locals, a practice he documented in his travel literature. Additionally, he describes sexual techniques prevalent in the areas he visited, sometimes implying personal involvement, thus challenging the sexual and racial norms of his era. The Kama Shastra Society and its publications, which Burton engaged with, were deemed scandalous by many contemporaries.
Biographers hold differing views on whether Burton engaged in homosexual activities, as he never explicitly acknowledges it in his writings. Speculation arose during his military service when Charles James Napier allegedly tasked Burton with investigating a male brothel frequented by British soldiers undercover. While there's no concrete evidence of Burton's involvement or that he submitted a report, some suggest it could be one of Burton's embellishments.
A persistent story surrounding Burton, mentioned in some obituaries, alleges that during his disguised pilgrimage to Mecca, he narrowly avoided exposure when seen urinating standing up, a practice not customary for Arabs. It was rumoured that he killed the witness to avoid detection, although Burton vehemently denied this, dismissing it as unlikely given the risk it posed to his cover. Despite his denials, Burton occasionally entertained the notion, perhaps revelling in the notoriety it brought him.
These accusations, coupled with Burton's contentious demeanour, purportedly hindered his advancement in both military and diplomatic spheres. As one obituary noted, his inclination to shock and penchant for self-incrimination, whether factual or not, made him unsuitable for conventional official roles. Burton's reputation was such that he was often distrusted and disliked by his peers, leading to speculation and suspicion about his character and actions.
One of Burton's most renowned works is his translation of The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, commonly referred to as The Arabian Nights in English due to earlier translations by Antoine Galland. Originally published in ten volumes in 1885, with seven additional volumes added later, this translation was a limited edition of one thousand copies printed by the Kama Shastra Society, exclusively for subscribers. It was guaranteed that no larger printing of the books in this format would ever be produced.
The tales collected in these volumes often contained sexual themes and were regarded as pornography at the time of their publication. Notably, Volume 10 included a 14,000-word essay titled "Pederasty" in its Terminal Essay, making it the most extensive and explicit discussion of homosexuality in any language at that time. Burton introduced the concept of the "Sotadic zone," speculating that male homosexuality was prevalent in certain southern latitudes.
Another well-known work by Burton is his translation of The Kama Sutra. While it is inaccurate to credit him as the sole translator since the original manuscript was in ancient Sanskrit, a language he did not understand, Burton collaborated with Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot on the project. He provided translations from later manuscripts of the text. The Kama Shastra Society published the book for the first time in 1883, and numerous editions of the Burton translation remain in circulation today.
Burton passed away in Trieste in the early hours of October 20, 1890, due to a heart attack. Despite his atheistic beliefs and upbringing in the Church of England, his wife Isabel arranged for a priest to administer the last rites, leading to a subsequent disagreement between Isabel and some of Burton's acquaintances. There is speculation that Burton may have passed away late on October 19, before the last rites were performed. The couple was interred in a tomb shaped like a Bedouin tent, a design crafted by Isabel, located in the cemetery of St Mary Magdalen Roman Catholic Church in Mortlake, southwest London.
Through a window at the rear of the tent, visitors can view the coffins of Sir Richard and Lady Burton, accessible by a short fixed ladder. Additionally, there is a memorial stained-glass window dedicated to Burton in the church's lady chapel, also erected by Isabel, portraying Burton as a medieval knight. The Burton Collection, featuring his personal effects, paintings, photographs, and related artifacts, is housed at the Orleans House Gallery in Twickenham. Notably, among these items is a small quartz stone from Mesopotamia inscribed with supposed Kufic script, which has remained undeciphered by experts to date.
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